Sulfotransferase SULT2A1 sequence variants

ABSTRACT

Isolated sulfotransferase nucleic acid molecules that include a nucleotide sequence variant and nucleotides flanking the sequence variant are described, as well as sulfotransferase allozymes. Methods for determining if a mammal is predisposed to a heart condition or cancer also are described.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims priority from U.S. Provisional Application Ser.No. 60/300,165, filed on Jun. 22, 2001.

STATEMENT AS TO FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH

Funding for the work described herein was provided in part by thefederal government (NIH grants RO1 GM28157, RO1GM35720, and U01GM61388), which may have certain rights in the invention.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The invention relates to sulfotransferase nucleic acid and amino acidsequence variants.

BACKGROUND

Sulfate conjugation is an important pathway in the biotransformation ofmany neurotransmitters, hormones, drugs and other xenobiotics, and iscatalyzed by cytosolic sulfotransferase enzymes designated “SULT.” SULTenzymes are encoded by a gene superfamily, which, in mammals, is dividedinto two families, SULT1 or phenol SULTs and SULT2 or hydroxysteroidSULTs. The SULT1 and SULT2 families share at least 45% amino acidsequence identity, while members of subfamilies within each family shareat least 60% amino acid sequence identity. SULT1 subfamilies include thephenol (1A), thyroid hormone (1B), hydroxyarylamine (1C), and estrogen(1E) SULTs. SULT2 subfamilies include two hydroxysteroid SULTs, 2A1 and2B1.

Members of the SULT2A subfamily, including SULT2A1, catalyze the sulfateconjugation of hydroxysteroids, such as dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA).Human SULT2A1 is expressed in the liver, small intestine, and adrenalcortex.

SUMMARY

The invention is based on the discovery of sequence variants that occurin both coding and non-coding regions of SULT2A1 nucleic acids. CertainSULT2A1 nucleotide sequence variants encode SULT2A1 enzymes that areassociated with individual differences in enzymatic activity. OtherSULT2A1 nucleotide sequence variants in non-coding regions of theSULT2A1 nucleic acid may alter regulation of transcription and/orsplicing of the SULT2A1 nucleic acid. Discovery of these sequencevariants allows individual differences in the sulfate conjugation ofdrugs and other xenobiotics in humans to be assessed such thatparticular treatment regimens can be tailored to an individual based onthe presence or absence of one or more sequence variants. Identificationof SULT2A1 nucleotide sequence variants also allows predisposition tohormone dependent diseases or cancer to be assessed in individuals.

In one aspect, the invention features an isolated nucleic acid moleculethat includes a SULT2A1 nucleic acid sequence, wherein the nucleic acidmolecule is at least ten nucleotides in length, and wherein the SULT2A1nucleic acid sequence includes a nucleotide sequence variant relative toSEQ ID NO.1. The nucleotide sequence variant can be within a codingsequence, an intron sequence, a 5′ untranslated sequence, or a 3′untranslated sequence, and can be a nucleotide deletion, a nucleotideinsertion, or a nucleotide substitution.

The nucleotide sequence variant can be at position 16 relative to theguanine in the splice donor site of intron 1, e.g., a thyminesubstitution for cytosine. The nucleotide sequence variant can be atposition 34 relative to the guanine in the splice donor site of intron2, e.g., an adenine substitution for guanine. The nucleotide sequencevariant can be at positions −94 or −129 relative to the guanine in thesplice acceptor site of intron 3, e.g., a guanine substitution forcytosine at position −94 or an adenine substitution for guanine atposition −129. The nucleotide sequence variant can be at position 57relative to the guanine in the splice donor site of intron 3, e.g., athymine substitution for cytosine.

The nucleotide sequence variant can be at position 67 relative to theguanine in the splice donor site of intron 4, e.g., a thyminesubstitution for cytosine. The nucleotide sequence variant can be atposition −122 relative to the adenine of the SULT2A1 translationinitiation codon, e.g., an adenine substitution for guanine.

The nucleotide sequence variant can be at positions 924 or 935 relativeto the adenine of the SULT2A1 translation initiation codon, e.g., acytosine substitution for thymine at position 924 or a thyminesubstitution for adenine at position 935.

The isolated nucleic acid molecule can include three nucleotide sequencevariants. For example, the three nucleotide sequence variants can be atposition −122 relative to the adenine of the SULT2A1 translationinitiation codon, position 187 relative to the adenine of the SULT2A1translation initiation codon; and position 781 relative to the adenineof the SULT2A1 translation initiation codon.

The invention also features an isolated nucleic acid encoding a SULT2A1polypeptide, wherein the polypeptide includes a SULT2A1 amino acidsequence variant relative to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:3. Theamino acid sequence variant can be at one or more residues selected fromthe group consisting of 63, 227, and 261.

In another aspect, the invention features an isolated SULT2A1polypeptide, wherein the polypeptide includes a SULT2A1 amino acidsequence variant relative to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:3. Thepolypeptide can include a SULT2A1 amino acid sequence variant at one ormore residues selected from the group consisting of 63, 227, and 261.For example, the amino acid sequence variant at residue 63 can be aproline; the amino acid sequence variant at residue 227 can be aglutamate; and the amino acid sequence variant at residue 261 can be athreonine. Activity of the polypeptide can be altered relative to a wildtype SULT2A1 polypeptide. The polypeptide can contain two amino acidsequence variants (e.g., at positions 63 and 261).

In yet another aspect, the invention features an article of manufacturethat includes a substrate, wherein the substrate includes a populationof isolated SULT2A1 nucleic acid molecules, each nucleic acid moleculeincluding a SULT2A1 nucleotide sequence variant. The substrate caninclude a plurality of discrete regions, wherein each region includes adifferent population of isolated SULT2A1 nucleic acid molecules, andwherein each population of molecules includes a different SULT2A1nucleotide sequence variant.

The invention also features a method for determining if a mammal ispredisposed to a heart condition such as heart attack or stroke, orcancer such as testicular cancer or breast cancer. The method includesobtaining a biological sample from the mammal, and detecting thepresence or absence of a SULT2A1 nucleotide sequence variant in thesample, wherein predisposition to a heart condition or cancer isdetermined based on the presence or absence of the variant. The methodfurther can include detecting the presence or absence of a plurality ofSULT2A1 nucleotide sequence variants in the sample to obtain a variantprofile of the mammal, and wherein predisposition to the heart conditionor cancer is determined based on the variant profile.

The invention also features a method for obtaining a SULT2A1 variantprofile. The method includes obtaining a biological sample from amammal, and detecting the presence or absence of a plurality of SULT2A1nucleotide sequence variants in the sample to obtain a variant profileof the mammal. The method further can include communicating the profileto a medical or research professional.

In yet another aspect, the invention features an isolated nucleic acidmolecule that includes a SULT2A1 nucleic acid sequence, wherein thenucleic acid molecule is at least ten nucleotides in length, and whereinthe SULT2A1 nucleic acid sequence has at least 99% sequence identity toa region of SEQ ID NO:1, wherein nucleotide −122 relative to the adenineof the SULT2A1 translation initiation codon is an adenine, nucleotide187 relative to the adenine of the SULT2A1 translation initiation codonis a cytosine, nucleotide 679 relative to the adenine of the SULT2A1translation initiation codon is a guanine, and nucleotide 781 relativeto the adenine of the SULT2A1 translation initiation codon is anadenine. The region of SEQ ID NO:1 can be selected from the groupconsisting of a) nucleotides −150 to −75 of SEQ ID NO:1 relative to theadenine of the SULT2A1 translation initiation codon; b) nucleotides 150to 200 of SEQ ID NO:1 relative to the adenine of the SULT2A1 translationinitiation codon; c) nucleotides 650 to 700 of SEQ ID NO:1 relative tothe adenine of the SULT2A1 translation initiation codon; and d)nucleotides 750 to 800 of SEQ ID NO:1 relative to the adenine of theSULT2A1 translation initiation codon.

Unless otherwise defined, all technical and scientific terms used hereinhave the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill inthe art to which this invention belongs. Although methods and materialssimilar or equivalent to those described herein can be used to practicethe invention, suitable methods and materials are described below. Allpublications, patent applications, patents, and other referencesmentioned herein are incorporated by reference in their entirety. Incase of conflict, the present specification, including definitions, willcontrol. In addition, the materials, methods, and examples areillustrative only and not intended to be limiting.

Other features and advantages of the invention will be apparent from thefollowing detailed description, and from the claims.

DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is the nucleotide sequence of the reference SULT2A1 (SEQ IDNO:1). Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are indicated inunderlined italics, exons are in uppercase, introns are in lowercase,coding regions are in boldface, and primer sequences are indicated bythick underlines.

FIG. 2A is an mRNA sequence (SEQ ID NO:2) containing the cDNA sequenceof the reference SULT2A1 (nucleotides 21 to 878). FIG. 2B is the aminoacid sequence (SEQ ID NO:3) of the reference SULT2A1.

FIG. 3 is a schematic of the location of the non-synonymouspolymorphisms within the SULT2A1 amino acid sequence.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The invention features SULT2A1 nucleotide and SULT2A1 amino acidsequence variants. SULT2A1 catalyzes the transfer of inorganic sulfateto hydroxysteroids and uses 3′-phosphoadenosine-5′-phosposulfate (PAPS)as the sulfate donor. Sulfation typically detoxifies compounds as theresulting ionized, organic sulfates are more readily excreted than theunsulfated compounds. Furthermore, functional groups that may interactwith biological macromolecules such as nucleic acids or proteins can bemasked by the sulfate moiety. SULT2A1 may play a role in themodification of steroids, including, without limitation, DHEA, ethinylestradiol, minoxidil, androsterone, androstenediol, epiandrosterone,androgens, estrogens (e.g., estrone and 17β estradiol), testosterone,and pregnenolone.

Genetically based variations in SULT2A1 activity may affect themetabolism of steroid compounds that are used as drugs, as well asstructurally related xenobiotics and endogeneous hormones. For example,an individual with decreased SULT2A1 activity might receive greaterbenefit from an average dose of DHEA compared to an individual with anormal SULT2A1 activity. Conversely, a female using the oralcontraceptive ethinyl estradiol with decreased SULT2A1 activity may havehigher circulating estrogen concentrations, a known risk factor forvascular conditions such as heart attack or stroke. In addition,detecting sulfotransferase activity can be important in post-menopausalwomen that are receiving, or are candidates for receiving, hormonereplacement therapy. Thus, detecting sulfotransferase nucleic acid andamino acid sequence variants facilitates the prediction of therapeuticefficacy and toxicity of drugs on an individual basis, as well as anindividual's ability to biotransform certain hormones.

Nucleic Acid Molecules

The invention features isolated nucleic acids that include a SULT2A1nucleic acid sequence. The SULT2A1 nucleic acid sequence includes anucleotide sequence variant and nucleotides flanking the sequencevariant. As used herein, “isolated nucleic acid” refers to a nucleicacid that is separated from other nucleic acid molecules that arepresent in a mammalian genome, including nucleic acids that normallyflank one or both sides of the nucleic acid in a mammalian genome (e.g.,nucleic acids that encode non-SULT2A1 proteins). The term “isolated” asused herein with respect to nucleic acids also includes anynon-naturally-occurring nucleic acid sequence since suchnon-naturally-occurring sequences are not found in nature and do nothave immediately contiguous sequences in a naturally-occurring genome.

An isolated nucleic acid can be, for example, a DNA molecule, providedone of the nucleic acid sequences normally found immediately flankingthat DNA molecule in a naturally-occurring genome is removed or absent.Thus, an isolated nucleic acid includes, without limitation, a DNAmolecule that exists as a separate molecule (e.g., a chemicallysynthesized nucleic acid, or a cDNA or genomic DNA fragment produced byPCR or restriction endonuclease treatment) independent of othersequences as well as recombinant DNA that is incorporated into a vector,an autonomously replicating plasmid, a virus (e.g., a retrovirus,lentivirus, adenovirus, or herpes virus), or into the genomic DNA of aprokaryote or eukaryote. In addition, an isolated nucleic acid caninclude an engineered nucleic acid such as a recombinant DNA moleculethat is part of a hybrid or fusion nucleic acid. A nucleic acid existingamong hundreds to millions of other nucleic acids within, for example,cDNA libraries or genomic libraries, or gel slices containing a genomicDNA restriction digest, is not to be considered an isolated nucleicacid.

Nucleic acids of the invention are at least about 8 nucleotides inlength. For example, the nucleic acid can be about 8, 9, 10-20 (e.g.,11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19,or20 nucleotides in length), 20-50,50-100 or greater than 100 nucleotides in length (e.g., greater than150, 200, 250, 300, 350, 400, 450, 500, 750, or 1000 nucleotides inlength). Nucleic acids of the invention can be in sense or antisenseorientation, can be complementary to the SULT2A1 reference sequence, andcan be DNA, RNA, or nucleic acid analogs. Nucleic acid analogs can bemodified at the base moiety, sugar moiety, or phosphate backbone toimprove, for example, stability, hybridization, or solubility of thenucleic acid. Modifications at the base moiety include deoxyuridine fordeoxythymidine, and 5-methyl-2′-deoxycytidine and5-bromo-2′-doxycytidine for deoxycytidine. Modifications of the sugarmoiety include modification of the 2′ hydroxyl of the ribose sugar toform 2′-O-methyl or 2′-O-allyl sugars. The deoxyribose phosphatebackbone can be modified to produce morpholino nucleic acids, in whicheach base moiety is linked to a six membered, morpholino ring, orpeptide nucleic acids, in which the deoxyphosphate backbone is replacedby a pseudopeptide backbone and the four bases are retained. See, forexample, Summerton and Weller, Antisense Nucleic Acid Drug Dev. (1997)7(3):187-195; and Hyrup et al. (1996) Bioorgan. Med. Chem. 4(1):5-23. Inaddition, the deoxyphosphate backbone can be replaced with, for example,a phosphorothioate or phosphorodithioate backbone, a phosphoroamidite,or an alkyl phosphotriester backbone.

As used herein, “nucleotide sequence variant” refers to any alterationin the SULT2A1 reference sequence, and includes variations that occur incoding and non-coding regions, including exons, introns, anduntranslated sequences. Nucleotides are referred to herein by thestandard one-letter designation (A, C, G, or T). Variations includesubstitutions of one or more nucleotides, deletions of one or morenucleotides, and insertions of one or more nucleotides. The referenceSULT2A1 genomic nucleic acid sequence is provided in FIG. 1 (SEQ IDNO:1) and in GenBank (Accession Nos. U13056, U13057, U13058, U13059,U13060, and U13061). The reference SULT2A1 mRNA including the SULT2A1cDNA is provided in FIG. 2A (SEQ ID NO:2) and the corresponding aminoacid sequence is provided in FIG. 2B (SEQ ID NO:3). Both the mRNA andthe amino acid sequences are also found in GenBank (Accession No.U08024). The nucleic acid and amino acid reference sequences also arereferred to herein as “wild type”. As used herein, “untranslatedsequence” includes 5′ and 3′ flanking regions that are outside of themRNA as well as 5′ and 3′ untranslated regions (5′-UTR or 3′-UTR) thatare part of the mRNA, but are not translated. Positions of nucleotidesequence variants in 5′ untranslated sequences are designated as “−X”relative to the “A” in the initiation codon; positions of nucleotidesequence variants in the coding sequence and 3′ untranslated sequenceare designated as “+X” or “X” relative to the “A” in the initiationcodon. Nucleotide sequence variants that occur in introns are designatedas “+X” or “X” relative to “G” in the splice donor site (GT) or as “−X”relative to the “G” in the splice acceptor site (AG).

In some embodiments, a SULT2A1 nucleotide sequence variant encodes aSULT2A1 polypeptide having a SULT2A1 amino acid sequence variant. Theterm “polypeptide” refers to a chain of at least four amino acidresidues (e.g., 4-8, 9-12, 13-15, 16-18, 19-21, 22-100, 100-150,150-200, 200-300 residues, or a full-length SULT2A1 polypeptide).SULT2A1 polypeptides may or may not have sulfotransferase catalyticactivity, or may have activity that is altered relative to the referenceSULT2A1 polypeptide. Polypeptides that do not have activity or that havealtered activity are useful for diagnostic purposes (e.g., for producingantibodies having specific binding affinity for variant sulfotransferasepolypeptides).

Corresponding SULT2A1 polypeptides, irrespective of length, that differin amino acid sequence are herein referred to as allozymes. For example,a SULT2A1 nucleic acid sequence that includes a cytosine at nucleotide187 encodes a SULT2A1 polypeptide having a proline at amino acid residue63. This polypeptide (Ala63Pro) would be considered an allozyme withrespect to the reference SULT2A1 polypeptide that contains an alanine atamino acid residue 63. Additional non-limiting examples of SULT2A1nucleotide sequence variants that encode SULT2A1 amino acid sequencevariants include variants at nucleotides 679 and 781. For example, aSULT2A1 nucleic acid molecule can include a guanine at nucleotide 679and encode a SULT2A1 polypeptide having a glutamate at amino acidresidue 227 in place of a lysine residue (Lys227Glu), or an adenine atnucleotide 781 and encode a SULT2A1 polypeptide having a threonine atamino acid 261 in place of an alanine (Ala261Thr).

SULT2A1 allozymes as described above are encoded by a series ofsulfotransferase alleles. These alleles represent SULT2A1 nucleic acidsequences containing nucleotide sequence variants, typically multiplenucleotide sequence variants, within coding and non-coding sequences.Representative examples of single nucleotide sequence variants aredescribed above. Table 2 sets out a series of SULT2A1 alleles thatencode SULT2A1 amino acid sequence variants. Alleles encoding Ala63Proand Ala261Thr are commonly observed (allele frequencies>1%). Therelatively large number of alleles and allozymes for SULT2A1 indicatesthe potential complexity of SULT pharmacogenetics. Such complexityemphasizes the need for determining single nucleotide sequence variants,(i.e., single nucleotide polymorphisms, SNPs) as well as completehaplotypes (i.e., the set of alleles on one chromosome or a part of achromosome) of patients.

Certain SULT2A1 nucleotide sequence variants do not alter the amino acidsequence. Such variants, however, could alter regulation oftranscription as well as mRNA stability. SULT2A1 nucleotide sequencevariants can occur in intron sequences, for example, within introns 1,2, 3, or 4. In particular, the nucleotide sequence variant can include athymine at nucleotide 16 of intron 1. The nucleotide sequence variantcan include an adenine at nucleotide 34 of intron 2. Intron 3 variantscan include a thymine at nucleotide 57, an adenine at −129, or a guanineat −94. Intron 4 variants include a thymine at 67.

SULT2A1 nucleotide sequence variants that do not change the amino acidsequence also can be within an exon or in 5′ or 3′ untranslatedsequences. For example, the 5′ flanking region of SULT2A1 can include asubstitution of an adenine at −122. The 3′ UTR can contain a cytosine at924 or a thymine at 935.

In some embodiments, nucleic acid molecules of the invention can have atleast 98% (e.g., 98.5%, 99.0%, 99.5%, 99.6%, 99.7%, 99.8%, 99.9%, or100%) sequence identity with a region of SEQ ID NO:1 that includes oneor more variants described herein. The region of SEQ ID NO:1 is at least15 nucleotides in length (e.g., 50, 60, 70, 75, 100, 150 or morenucleotides in length). For example, a nucleic acid molecule can have atleast 99% identity with a region of SEQ ID NO:1 containing nucleotides−150 to 800, −150 to −75, −75 to −30, −25 to 50, 55 to 110, 115 to 200,205 to 275, 300 to 375, 380 to 450, 455 to 525, 530 to 630, 650 to 700,705 to 745, or 750 to 800 relative to the adenine of the SULT2A1translation initiation codon, where the nucleotide sequence of SEQ IDNO.1 includes one or more of the variants described herein. For example,the nucleotide sequence of SEQ ID NO:1 can have an adenine at nucleotide−122 relative to the adenine of the SULT2A1 translation initiationcodon, a cytosine at nucleotide 187 relative to the adenine of theSULT2A1 translation initiation codon, a guanine at nucleotide 679relative to the adenine of the SULT2A1 translation initiation codon, oran adenine at nucleotide 781 relative to the adenine of the SULT2A1translation initiation codon, and combinations thereof.

Percent sequence identity is calculated by determining the number ofmatched positions in aligned nucleic acid sequences, dividing the numberof matched positions by the total number of aligned nucleotides, andmultiplying by 100. A matched position refers to a position in whichidentical nucleotides occur at the same position in aligned nucleic acidsequences. Percent sequence identity also can be determined for anyamino acid sequence. To determine percent sequence identity, a targetnucleic acid or amino acid sequence is compared to the identifiednucleic acid or amino acid sequence using the BLAST 2 Sequences (Bl2seq)program from the stand-alone version of BLASTZ containing BLASTN version2.0.14 and BLASTP version 2.0.14. This stand-alone version of BLASTZ canbe obtained from the State University of New York—Old Westbury campuslibrary as well as at Fish & Richardson's web site (www.fr.com/blast) orthe U.S. government's National Center for Biotechnology Information website (www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/blast/executables). Instructions explaininghow to use the Bl2seq program can be found in the readme fileaccompanying BLASTZ.

Bl2seq performs a comparison between two sequences using either theBLASTN or BLASTP algorithm. BLASTN is used to compare nucleic acidsequences, while BLASTP is used to compare amino acid sequences. Tocompare two nucleic acid sequences, the options are set as follows: -iis set to a file containing the first nucleic acid sequence to becompared (e.g., C:\seq1.txt); -j is set to a file containing the secondnucleic acid sequence to be compared (e.g., C:\seq2.txt); -p is set toblastn; -o is set to any desired file name (e.g., C:\output.txt); -q isset to −1; -r is set to 2; and all other options are left at theirdefault setting. The following command will generate an output filecontaining a comparison between two sequences: C:\Bl2seq -i c:\seq1.txt-j c:\seq2.txt -p blastn -o c:\output.txt -q −1 -r 2. If the targetsequence shares homology with any portion of the identified sequence,then the designated output file will present those regions of homologyas aligned sequences. If the target sequence does not share homologywith any portion of the identified sequence, then the designated outputfile will not present aligned sequences.

Once aligned, a length is determined by counting the number ofconsecutive nucleotides from the target sequence presented in alignmentwith sequence from the identified sequence starting with any matchedposition and ending with any other matched position. A matched positionis any position where an identical nucleotide is presented in both thetarget and identified sequence. Gaps presented in the target sequenceare not counted since gaps are not nucleotides. Likewise, gaps presentedin the identified sequence are not counted since target sequencenucleotides are counted, not nucleotides from the identified sequence.

The percent identity over a particular length is determined by countingthe number of matched positions over that length and dividing thatnumber by the length followed by multiplying the resulting value by 100.For example, if (1) a 1000 nucleotide target sequence is compared to thesequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:1, (2) the Bl2 seq program presents 200nucleotides from the target sequence aligned with a region of thesequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:1 where the first and last nucleotidesof that 200 nucleotide region are matches, and (3) the number of matchesover those 200 aligned nucleotides is 180, then the 1000 nucleotidetarget sequence contains a length of 200 and a percent identity overthat length of 90 (i.e., 180÷200×100=90).

It will be appreciated that different regions within a single nucleicacid target sequence that aligns with an identified sequence can eachhave their own percent identity. It is noted that the percent identityvalue is rounded to the nearest tenth. For example, 78.11, 78.12, 78.13,and 78.14 are rounded down to 78.1, while 78.15, 78.16, 78.17, 78.18,and 78.19 are rounded up to 78.2. It also is noted that the length valuewill always be an integer.

Isolated nucleic acid molecules of the invention can be produced bystandard techniques, including, without limitation, common molecularcloning and chemical nucleic acid synthesis techniques. For example,polymerase chain reaction (PCR) techniques can be used to obtain anisolated nucleic acid containing a SULT2A1 nucleotide sequence variant.

PCR refers to a procedure or technique in which target nucleic acids areenzymatically amplified. Sequence information from the ends of theregion of interest or beyond typically is employed to designoligonucleotide primers that are identical in sequence to oppositestrands of the template to be amplified. PCR can be used to amplifyspecific sequences from DNA as well as RNA, including sequences fromtotal genomic DNA or total cellular RNA. Primers are typically 14 to 40nucleotides in length, but can range from 10 nucleotides to hundreds ofnucleotides in length. General PCR techniques are described, for examplein PCR Primer: A Laboratory Manual, Ed. by Dieffenbach, C. and Dveksler,G., Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 1995. When using RNA as asource of template, reverse transcriptase can be used to synthesizecomplementary DNA (cDNA) strands. Ligase chain reaction, stranddisplacement amplification, self-sustained sequence replication ornucleic acid sequence-based amplification also can be used to obtainisolated nucleic acids. See, for example, Lewis Genetic EngineeringNews, 12(9):1 (1992); Guatelli et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA,87:1874-1878 (1990); and Weiss, Science, 254:1292 (1991).

Isolated nucleic acids of the invention also can be chemicallysynthesized, either as a single nucleic acid molecule (e.g., usingautomated DNA synthesis in the 3′ to 5′ direction using phosphoramiditetechnology) or as a series of oligonucleotides. For example, one or morepairs of long oligonucleotides (e.g.,>100 nucleotides) can besynthesized that contain the desired sequence, with each pair containinga short segment of complementarity (e.g., about 15 nucleotides) suchthat a duplex is formed when the oligonucleotide pair is annealed. DNApolymerase is used to extend the oligonucleotides, resulting in asingle, double-stranded nucleic acid molecule per oligonucleotide pair,which then can be ligated into a vector.

Isolated nucleic acids of the invention also can be obtained bymutagenesis. For example, the reference sequence depicted in FIGS. 1 or2A can be mutated using standard techniques includingoligonucleotide-directed mutagenesis and site-directed mutagenesisthrough PCR. See, Short Protocols in Molecular Biology, Chapter 8, GreenPublishing Associates and John Wiley & Sons, Edited by Ausubel, F. M etal., 1992. Examples of positions that can be modified are describedabove.

Vectors and Host Cells

The invention also provides vectors containing nucleic acids such asthose described above. As used herein, a “vector” is a replicon, such asa plasmid, phage, or cosmid, into which another DNA segment may beinserted so as to bring about the replication of the inserted segment.The vectors of the invention can be expression vectors. An “expressionvector” is a vector that includes one or more expression controlsequences, and an “expression control sequence” is a DNA sequence thatcontrols and regulates the transcription and/or translation of anotherDNA sequence.

In the expression vectors of the invention, the nucleic acid is operablylinked to one or more expression control sequences. As used herein,“operably linked” means incorporated into a genetic construct so thatexpression control sequences effectively control expression of a codingsequence of interest. Examples of expression control sequences includepromoters, enhancers, and transcription terminating regions. A promoteris an expression control sequence composed of a region of a DNAmolecule, typically within 100 nucleotides upstream of the point atwhich transcription starts (generally near the initiation site for RNApolymerase II). To bring a coding sequence under the control of apromoter, it is necessary to position the translation initiation site ofthe translational reading frame of the polypeptide between one and aboutfifty nucleotides downstream of the promoter. Enhancers provideexpression specificity in terms of time, location, and level. Unlikepromoters, enhancers can function when located at various distances fromthe transcription site. An enhancer also can be located downstream fromthe transcription initiation site. A coding sequence is “operablylinked” and “under the control” of expression control sequences in acell when RNA polymerase is able to transcribe the coding sequence intomRNA, which then can be translated into the protein encoded by thecoding sequence.

Suitable expression vectors include, without limitation, plasmids andviral vectors derived from, for example, bacteriophage, baculoviruses,tobacco mosaic virus, herpes viruses, cytomegalovirus, retroviruses,vaccinia viruses, adenoviruses, and adeno-associated viruses. Numerousvectors and expression systems are commercially available from suchcorporations as Novagen (Madison, Wis.), Clontech (Palo Alto, Calif.),Stratagene (La Jolla, Calif.), and Invitrogen/Life Technologies(Carlsbad, Calif.).

An expression vector can include a tag sequence designed to facilitatesubsequent manipulation of the expressed nucleic acid sequence (e.g.,purification or localization). Tag sequences, such as green fluorescentprotein (GFP), glutathione S-transferase (GST), polyhistidine, c-myc,hemagglutinin, or Flag™ tag (Kodak, New Haven, Conn.) sequencestypically are expressed as a fusion with the encoded polypeptide. Suchtags can be inserted anywhere within the polypeptide including at eitherthe carboxyl or amino terminus.

The invention also provides host cells containing vectors of theinvention. The term “host cell” is intended to include prokaryotic andeukaryotic cells into which a recombinant expression vector can beintroduced. As used herein, “transformed” and “transfected” encompassthe introduction of a nucleic acid molecule (e.g., a vector) into a cellby one of a number of techniques. Although not limited to a particulartechnique, a number of these techniques are well established within theart. Prokaryotic cells can be transformed with nucleic acids by, forexample, electroporation or calcium chloride mediated transformation.Nucleic acids can be transfected into mammalian cells by techniquesincluding, for example, calcium phosphate co-precipitation,DEAE-dextran-mediated transfection, lipofection, electroporation, ormicroinjection. Suitable methods for transforming and transfecting hostcells are found in Sambrook et al., Molecular Cloning: A LaboratoryManual (2^(nd) edition), Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, New York (1989),and reagents for transformation and/or transfection are commerciallyavailable (e.g., Lipofectin (Invitrogen/Life Technologies); Fugene(Roche, Indianapolis, Ind.); and SuperFect (Qiagen, Valencia, Calif.)).

SULT2A1 Polypeptides

Isolated SULT2A1 polypeptides of the invention include an amino acidsequence variant relative to the reference SULT2A1 polypeptide (FIG. 2B,GenBank Accession No. U08024). The term “isolated” with respect to aSULT2A1 polypeptide refers to a polypeptide that has been separated fromcellular components that naturally accompany it. Typically, thepolypeptide is isolated when it is at least 60% (e.g., 70%, 80%, 90%,95%, or 99%), by weight, free from proteins and naturally occurringorganic molecules that are naturally associated with it. In general, anisolated polypeptide will yield a single major band on a non-reducingpolyacrylamide gel.

SULT2A1 polypeptides of the invention can include variants at one ormore of residues 63, 227, and 261. In particular, a proline residue canbe substituted at position 63, a glutamate residue at position 227, or athreonine at position 261. In some embodiments, a polypeptide caninclude a proline at position 63 and a threonine at position 261. Aminoacid variants also can be within conserved regions I-IV of the SULTsignature sequence. See, Pederson et al., FEBS Letters 475:61-64 (2000).For example, the variant can be within region IV or the dimerizationmotif. As described herein, the Ala26Thr polymorphism disruptsdimerization of SULT2A1.

Activity of SULT2A1 polypeptides can be altered relative to thereference SULT2A1 polypeptide. As described herein, certain SULT2A1allozymes have reduced activity (e.g., Ala63Pro, Lys227Glu, andAla63Pro/Ala261Thr), while other allozymes (Ala261Thr) have activitythat is comparable to the reference SULT2A1 polypeptide. Other allozymescan have increased activity relative to the reference SULT2A1polypeptide. Activity of SULT2A1 polypeptides can be assessed in vitrousing a sulfate acceptor substrate such as DHEA and a donor sulfatemolecule such as PAPS. In general, recombinant SULT2A1 polypeptides canbe incubated at 37° C. with 0.4 μM ³⁵S-PAPS and 5 μM DHEA in a potassiumphosphate buffer (5 mM, pH 6.5). Reactions can be stopped byprecipitating PAPS and SULT2A1 polypeptide (e.g., with barium hydroxide,barium acetate, and zinc sulfate). After centrifugation of the reaction,radioactivity in the supernatant is assessed. SULT2A1 activity isexpressed as nmoles of sulfate conjugated product formed per hour ofincubation. See, Campbell, N. R. C. et al., Biochem. Pharmacol.,36:1435-1446 (1987).

Other biochemical properties of allozymes, such as apparent K_(m)values, also can be altered relative to the reference SULT2A1polypeptide. Apparent K_(m) values can be calculated, for example, byusing the method of Wilkinson with a computer program written byCleland. Wilkinson, Biochem. J., 80:324-332 (1961); and Cleland, Nature,198:463-365 (1963). As described herein, the apparent K_(m) values forDHEA vary among the allozymes tested.

Polypeptides of the invention can have at least 98% (e.g., 98.5%, 99.0%,99.5%, or 100%) sequence identity with a region of SEQ ID NO:3 at least15 amino acids in length (e.g., 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70 or more aminoacids) and containing one or more variants described herein. Forexample, a polypeptide can have at least 98% identity with a region ofSEQ ID NO:3 containing amino acids 1 to 285, 10 to 100, 20 to 90, 40 to70, 50 to 70, 110 to 160, 165 to 215, or 220 to 285 of SEQ ID NO:3,wherein the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:3 contains one or morevariants described herein. For example, the amino acid sequence of SEQID NO3 can include one or more of the following variants: a proline atresidue 63, a glutamic acid at residue 227, or a threonine at residue261.

Percent sequence identity is calculated by determining the number ofmatched positions in aligned amino acid sequences, dividing the numberof matched positions by the total number of aligned amino acids, andmultiplying by 100. The percent identity between amino acid sequencestherefore is calculated in a manner analogous to the method forcalculating the identity between nucleic acid sequences, using theBl2seq program from the stand-alone version of BLASTZ containing BLASTNversion 2.0.14 and BLASTP version 2.0.14; as indicated above. A matchedposition refers to a position in which identical residues occur at thesame position in aligned amino acid sequences. To compare two amino acidsequences, the options of Bl2 seq are set as follows: -i is set to afile containing the first amino acid sequence to be compared (e.g.,C:\seq1.txt); -j is set to a file containing the second amino acidsequence to be compared (e.g., C:\seq2.txt); 31 p is set to blastp; -ois set to any desired file name (e.g., C:\output.txt); and all otheroptions are left at their default setting. The following command willgenerate an output file containing a comparison between two amino acidsequences: C:\Bl2seq -i c:\seq1.txt -j c:\seq2.txt \p blastp \oc:\output.txt. If the target sequence shares homology with any portionof the identified sequence, then the designated output file will presentthose regions of homology as aligned sequences. If the target sequencedoes not share homology with any portion of the identified sequence,then the designated output file will not present aligned sequences.

Once aligned, a length is determined by counting the number ofconsecutive amino acid residues from the target sequence presented inalignment with sequence from the identified sequence starting with anymatched position and ending with any other matched position. A matchedposition is any position where an identical amino acid residue ispresented in both the target and identified sequence. Gaps presented inthe target sequence are not counted since gaps are not amino acidresidues. Likewise, gaps presented in the identified sequence are notcounted since target sequence amino acid residues are counted, not aminoacid residues from the identified sequence.

The percent identity over a particular length is determined by countingthe number of matched positions over that length and dividing thatnumber by the length followed by multiplying the resulting value by 100.For example, if (1) a 100 amino acid target sequence is compared to thesequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:3, (2) the Bl2 seq program presents 20amino acids from the target sequence aligned with a region of thesequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:3 where the first and last amino acidsof that 20 amino acid region are matches, and (3) the number of matchesover those 20 aligned amino acids is 18, then the 100 amino acid targetsequence contains a length of 20 and a percent identity over that lengthof 90 (i.e., 18 ÷20×100=90). As described for aligned nucleic acids,.different regions within a single amino acid target sequence that alignswith an identified sequence can each have their own percent identity. Italso is noted that the percent identity value is rounded to the nearesttenth, and the length value will always be an integer.

Isolated polypeptides of the invention can be obtained, for example, byextraction from a natural source (e.g., liver tissue), chemicalsynthesis, or by recombinant production in a host cell. To recombinantlyproduce SULT2A1 polypeptides, a nucleic acid sequence containing aSULT2A1 nucleotide sequence variant can be ligated into an expressionvector and used to transform a bacterial or eukaryotic host cell (e.g.,insect, yeast, or mammalian cells). In bacterial systems, a strain ofEscherichia coli such as BL-21 can be used. Suitable E. coli vectorsinclude the pGEX series of vectors that produce fusion proteins withglutathione S-transferase (GST). Transformed E. coli are typically grownexponentially, then stimulated with isopropylthiogalactopyranoside(IPTG) prior to harvesting. In general, such fusion proteins are solubleand can be purified easily from lysed cells by adsorption toglutathione-agarose beads followed by elution in the presence of freeglutathione. The pGEX vectors are designed to include thrombin or factorXa protease cleavage sites so that the cloned target gene product can bereleased from the GST moiety.

In eukaryotic host cells, a number of viral-based expression systems(described above) can be utilized to express SULT2A1 variantpolypeptides. A nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide of the invention canbe cloned into, for example, a baculoviral vector such as pBlueBac(Invitrogen, San Diego, Calif.) and then used to co-transfect insectcells such as Spodoptera frugiperda (Sf9) cells with wild type DNA fromAutographa californica multiply enveloped nuclear polyhedrosis virus(AcMNPV). Recombinant viruses producing polypeptides of the inventioncan be identified by standard methodology.

Mammalian cell lines that stably express SULT2A1 variant polypeptidescan be produced by using expression vectors with the appropriate controlelements and a selectable marker. For example, the eukaryotic expressionvector pCR3.1 (Invitrogen, San Diego, Calif.) and p91023(B) (see Wong etal., Science (1985) 228:810-815) are suitable for expression ofsulfotransferase variant polypeptides in, for example, Chinese hamsterovary (CHO) cells, COS-1 cells, human embryonic kidney 293 cells, NIH3T3cells, BHK21 cells, MDCK cells, and human vascular endothelial cells(HUVEC). Following introduction of the expression vector as describedabove, stable cell lines can be selected, e.g., by antibiotic resistanceto G418, kanamycin, or hygromycin. Alternatively, amplified sequencescan be ligated into a mammalian expression vector such as pcDNA3(Invitrogen, San Diego, Calif. ) and then transcribed and translated invitro using wheat germ extract or rabbit reticulocyte lysate.

SULT2A1 variant polypeptides can be purified by known chromatographicmethods including DEAE ion exchange, gel filtration, and hydroxylapatitechromatography. Van Loon and Weinshilboum, Drug Metab. Dispos.,18:632-638 (1990); Van Loon et al., Biochem. Pharmacol., 44:775-785(1992). Affinity chromatography is particularly useful for SULT2A1polypeptides that have been “engineered” to contain an amino acidsequence that allows the polypeptide to be captured onto the affinitymatrix. Suitable tags are described above. Immunoaffinity chromatographyalso can be used to purify SULT2A1 polypeptides.

Non-Human Mammals

The invention features non-human mammals that include SULT2A1 nucleicacids of the invention, as well as progeny and cells of such non-humanmammals. Non-human mammals include, for example, rodents such as rats,guinea pigs, and mice, and farm animals such as pigs, sheep, goats,horses and cattle. Non-human mammals of the invention can express aSULT2A1 nucleotide sequence variant in addition to an endogenous SULT2A1nucleic acid (e.g., a transgenic non-human that includes a SULT2A1nucleic acid molecule randomly integrated into the genome of thenon-human mammal). Alternatively, an endogenous SULT2A1 nucleic acid canbe replaced by a SULT2A1 nucleic acid molecule containing a SULT2A1nucleotide sequence variant through homologous recombination. See,Shastry, B. S., Mol. Cell Biochem., (1998) 181(1-2):163-179, for areview of gene targeting technology.

In one embodiment, non-human mammals are produced that lack anendogenous SULT2A1 nucleic acid (i.e., a knockout), then a SULT2A1variant nucleic acid of the invention is introduced into the knockoutnon-human mammal. Nucleic acid constructs used for producing knockoutnon-human mammals can include a nucleic acid sequence encoding aselectable marker, which is generally used to interrupt the targetedexon site by homologous recombination. Typically, the selectable markeris flanked by sequences homologous to the sequences flanking the desiredinsertion site. It is not necessary for the flanking sequences to beimmediately adjacent to the desired insertion site. Suitable markers forpositive drug selection include, for example, the aminoglycoside 3Nphosphotransferase gene that imparts resistance to geneticin (G418, anaminoglycoside antibiotic), and other antibiotic resistance markers,such as the hygromycin-B-phosphotransferase gene that imparts hygromycinresistance. Other selection systems include negative-selection markerssuch as the thymidine kinase (TK) gene from herpes simplex virus.Constructs utilizing both positive and negative drug selection also canbe used. For example, a construct can contain the aminoglycosidephosphotransferase gene and the TK gene. In this system, cells areselected that are resistant to G418 and sensitive to gancyclovir.

To create non-human mammals having a particular gene inactivated in allcells, it is necessary to introduce a knockout construct into the germcells (sperm or eggs, i.e., the “germ line”) of the desired species.Genes or other DNA sequences can be introduced into the pronuclei offertilized eggs by microinjection. Following pronuclear fusion, thedeveloping embryo may carry the introduced gene in all its somatic andgerm cells since the zygote is the mitotic progenitor of all cells inthe embryo. Since targeted insertion of a knockout construct is arelatively rare event, it is desirable to generate and screen a largenumber of animals when employing such an approach. Because of this, itcan be advantageous to work with the large cell populations andselection criteria that are characteristic of cultured cell systems.However, for production of knockout animals from an initial populationof cultured cells, it is necessary that a cultured cell containing thedesired knockout construct be capable of generating a whole animal. Thisis generally accomplished by placing the cell into a developing embryoenvironment of some sort.

Cells capable of giving rise to at least several differentiated celltypes are “pluripotent.” Pluripotent cells capable of giving rise to allcell types of an embryo, including germ cells, are hereinafter termed“totipotent” cells. Totipotent murine cell lines (embryonic stem, or“ES” cells) have been isolated by culture of cells derived from veryyoung embryos (blastocysts). Such cells are capable, upon incorporationinto an embryo, of differentiating into all cell types, including germcells, and can be employed to generate animals lacking an endogenousSULT2A1 nucleic acid. That is, cultured ES cells can be transformed witha knockout construct and cells selected in which the SULT2A1 gene isinactivated.

Nucleic acid constructs can be introduced into ES cells, for example, byelectroporation or other standard technique. Selected cells can bescreened for gene targeting events. For example, the polymerase chainreaction (PCR) can be used to confirm the presence of the transgene.

The ES cells further can be characterized to determine the number oftargeting events. For example, genomic DNA can be harvested from EScells and used for Southern analysis. See, for example, Section9.37-9.52 of Sambrook et al., “Molecular Cloning, A Laboratory Manual,”second edition, Cold Spring Harbor Press, Plainview, N.Y., 1989.

To generate a knockout animal, ES cells having at least one inactivatedSULT2A1 allele are incorporated into a developing embryo. This can beaccomplished through injection into the blastocyst cavity of a murineblastocyst-stage embryo, by injection into a morula-stage embryo, byco-culture of ES cells with a morula-stage embryo, or through fusion ofthe ES cell with an enucleated zygote. The resulting embryo is raised tosexual maturity and bred in order to obtain animals, whose cells(including germ cells) carry the inactivated SULT2A1 allele. If theoriginal ES cell was heterozygous for the inactivated SULT2A1 allele,several of these animals can be bred with each other in order togenerate animals homozygous for the inactivated allele.

Alternatively, direct microinjection of DNA into eggs can be used toavoid the manipulations required to turn a cultured cell into an animal.Fertilized eggs are “totipotent,” i.e., capable of developing into anadult without further substantive manipulation other than implantationinto a surrogate mother. To enhance the probability of homologousrecombination when eggs are directly injected with knockout constructs,it is useful to incorporate at least about 8 kb of homologous DNA intothe targeting construct. In addition, it is also useful to prepare theknockout constructs from isogenic DNA.

Embryos derived from microinjected eggs can be screened for homologousrecombination events in several ways. For example, if the SULT2A1 geneis interrupted by a coding region that produces a detectable (e.g.,fluorescent) gene product, then the injected eggs are cultured to theblastocyst stage and analyzed for presence of the indicator polypeptide.Embryos with fluorescing cells, for example, are then implanted into asurrogate mother and allowed to develop to term. Alternatively, injectedeggs are allowed to develop and DNA from the resulting pups analyzed byPCR or RT-PCR for evidence of homologous recombination.

Nuclear transplantation also can be used to generate non-human mammalsof the invention. For example, fetal fibroblasts can be geneticallymodified such that they contain an inactivated endogenous SULT2A1 geneand express a SULT2A1 nucleic acid of the invention, and then fused withenucleated oocytes. After activation of the oocytes, the eggs arecultured to the blastocyst stage, and implanted into a recipient. See,Cibelli, J. B. et al., Science, (1998) 280:1256-1258. Adult somaticcells, including, for example, cumulus cells and mammary cells, can beused to produce animals such as mice and sheep, respectively. See, forexample, Wakayama, T. et al., Nature, (1998) 394(6691):369-374; andWilmut, I. et al., Nature, (1997) 385(6619):810-813. Nuclei can beremoved from genetically modified adult somatic cells, and transplantedinto enucleated oocytes. After activation, the eggs can be cultured tothe 2-8 cell stage, or to the blastocyst stage, and implanted into asuitable recipient. Wakayama, T. et al., 1998, supra.

Non-human mammals of the invention such as mice can be used to screen,for example, toxicity of compounds that are substrates for SULT2A1polypeptides, drugs that alter SULT2A1 polypeptide activity, or forcarcinogenesis. For example, SULT2A1 polypeptide activity or toxicitycan be assessed in a first group of such non-human mammals in thepresence of a compound, and compared with SULT2A1 polypeptides activityor toxicity in a corresponding control group in the absence of thecompound. As used herein, suitable compounds include biologicalmacromolecules such as an oligonucleotide (RNA or DNA) or a polypeptideof any length, a chemical compound, a mixture of chemical compounds, oran extract isolated from bacterial, plant, fungal, or animal matter. Theconcentration of compound to be tested depends on the type of compoundand in vitro test data.

Non-human mammals can be exposed to test compounds by any route ofadministration, including enterally and parenterally. For example, thecompound can be administered parenterally through inhalation, or byintranasal, intravascular, intramuscular, or subcutaneousadministration. Enteral routes include sublingual and oraladministration. Compounds can be prepared for parenteral administrationin the form of liquid solutions or suspensions; for oral administrationin the form of tablets or capsules; or for intranasal administration inthe form of powders, nasal drops, or aerosols. Compounds can be preparedfor other routes of administration using standard techniques. Testcompounds can be mixed with non-toxic excipients or carriers beforeadministration. Inhalation formulations can include aqueous solutionscontaining, for example, polyoxyethylene-9-lauryl ether, glycocholate,or deoxycholate. Other formulations may contain sterile water or saline,or polyalkylene glycols such as polyethylene glycol.

Detecting SULT2A1 Sequence Variants

SULT2A1 nucleotide sequence variants can be detected, for example, bysequencing exons, introns, 5′ untranslated sequences, or 3′ untranslatedsequences, by performing allele-specific hybridization, allele-specificrestriction digests, mutation specific polymerase chain reactions(MSPCR), by single-stranded conformational polymorphism (SSCP) detection(Schafer et al., 1995, Nat. Biotechnol. 15:33-39), denaturing highperformance liquid chromatography (DHPLC, Underhill et al., 1997, GenomeRes., 7:996-1005), infared matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization(IR-MALDI) mass spectrometry (WO 99/57318), and combinations of suchmethods.

Genomic DNA generally is used in the analysis of SULT2A1 nucleotidesequence variants. Genomic DNA is typically extracted from a biologicalsample such as a peripheral blood sample, but can be extracted fromother biological samples, including tissues (e.g., mucosal scrapings ofthe lining of the mouth or from renal or hepatic tissue). Routinemethods can be used to extract genomic DNA from a blood or tissuesample, including, for example, phenol extraction. Alternatively,genomic DNA can be extracted with kits such as the QIAamp® Tissue Kit(Qiagen, Chatsworth, Calif. ), Wizard® Genomic DNA purification kit(Promega, Madison, Wis.) and the A.S.A.P.{haeck over (O)} Genomic DNAisolation kit (Boehringer Mannheim, Indianapolis, Ind.).

Typically, an amplification step is performed before proceeding with thedetection method. For example, exons or introns of the SULT2A1 gene canbe amplified then directly sequenced. Dye primer sequencing can be usedto increase the accuracy of detecting heterozygous samples.

Allele specific hybridization also can be used to detect SULT2A1nucleotide sequence variants, including complete haplotypes of a mammal.See, Stoneking et al., 1991, Am. J. Hum. Genet., 48:370-382; and Princeet al., 2001, Genome Res., 11(l):152-162. In practice, samples of DNA orRNA from one or more mammals can be amplified using pairs of primers andthe resulting amplification products can be immobilized on a substrate(e.g., in discrete regions). Hybridization conditions are selected suchthat a nucleic acid probe can specifically bind to the sequence ofinterest, e.g., the SULT2A1 nucleic acid molecule containing aparticular SULT2A1 nucleotide sequence variant. Such hybridizationstypically are performed under high stringency as some nucleotidesequence variants include only a single nucleotide difference. Highstringency conditions can include the use of low ionic strengthsolutions and high temperatures for washing. For example, nucleic acidmolecules can be hybridized at 42° C. in 2×SSC (0.3M NaCl/0.03 M sodiumcitrate/0.1% sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) and washed in 0.1×SSC (0.015MNaCl/0.0015 M sodium citrate), 0.1% SDS at 65° C. Hybridizationconditions can be adjusted to account for unique features of the nucleicacid molecule, including length and sequence composition. Probes can belabeled (e.g., fluorescently) to facilitate detection. In someembodiments, one of the primers used in the amplification reaction isbiotinylated (e.g., 5′ end of reverse primer) and the resultingbiotinylated amplification product is immobilized on an avidin orstreptavidin coated substrate.

Allele-specific restriction digests can be performed in the followingmanner. For SULT2A1 nucleotide sequence variants that introduce arestriction site, restriction digest with the particular restrictionenzyme can differentiate the alleles. For SULT2A1 nucleotide sequencevariants that do not alter a common restriction site, mutagenic primerscan be designed that introduce a restriction site when the variantallele is present or when the wild type allele is present. A portion ofSULT2A1 nucleic acid can be amplified using the mutagenic primer and awild type primer, followed by digest with the appropriate restrictionendonuclease.

Certain variants, such as insertions or deletions of one or morenucleotides, change the size of the DNA fragment encompassing thevariant. The insertion or deletion of nucleotides can be assessed byamplifying the region encompassing the variant and determining the sizeof the amplified products in comparison with size standards. Forexample, a region of SULT2A1 nucleic acid can be amplified using aprimer set from either side of the variant. One of the primers istypically labeled, for example, with a fluorescent moiety, to facilitatesizing. The amplified products can be electrophoresed through acrylamidegels with a set of size standards that are labeled with a fluorescentmoiety that differs from the primer.

PCR conditions and primers can be developed that amplify a product onlywhen the variant allele is present or only when the wild type allele ispresent (MSPCR or allele-specific PCR). For example, patient DNA and acontrol can be amplified separately using either a wild type primer or aprimer specific for the variant allele. Each set of reactions is thenexamined for the presence of amplification products using standardmethods to visualize the DNA. For example, the reactions can beelectrophoresed through an agarose gel and the DNA visualized bystaining with ethidium bromide or other DNA intercalating dye. In DNAsamples from heterozygous patients, reaction products would be detectedin each reaction. Patient samples containing solely the wild type allelewould have amplification products only in the reaction using the wildtype primer. Similarly, patient samples containing solely the variantallele would have amplification products only in the reaction using thevariant primer. Allele-specific PCR also can be performed usingallele-specific primers that introduce priming sites for two universalenergy-transfer-labeled primers (e.g., one primer labeled with a greendye such as fluoroscein and one primer labeled with a red dye such assulforhodamine). Amplification products can be analyzed for green andred fluorescence in a plate reader. See, Myakishev et al., 2001, Genome11(l):163-169.

Mismatch cleavage methods also can be used to detect differing sequencesby PCR amplification, followed by hybridization with the wild typesequence and cleavage at points of mismatch. Chemical reagents, such ascarbodiimide or hydroxylamine and osmium tetroxide can be used to modifymismatched nucleotides to facilitate cleavage.

Alternatively, SULT2A1 allozymes can be detected by antibodies that havespecific binding affinity for that particular allozyme. SULT2A1allozymes can be produced in various ways, including recombinantly, asdiscussed above. Host animals such as rabbits, chickens, mice, guineapigs and rats can be immunized by injection of a particular SULT2A1allozyme. Various adjuvants that can be used to increase theimmunological response depend on the host species and include Freund'sadjuvant (complete and incomplete), mineral gels such as aluminumhydroxide, surface active substances such as lysolecithin, pluronicpolyols, polyanions, peptides, oil emulsions, keyhole limpet hemocyaninand dinitrophenol. Polyclonal antibodies are heterogeneous populationsof antibody molecules that are contained in the sera of the immunizedanimals. Monoclonal antibodies, which are homogeneous populations ofantibodies to a particular antigen, can be prepared using a SULT2A1allozyme and standard hybridoma technology. In particular, monoclonalantibodies can be obtained by any technique that provides for theproduction of antibody molecules by continuous cell lines in culturesuch as described by Kohler et al., Nature, 256:495 (1975), the humanB-cell hybridoma technique (Kosbor et al., Immunology Today, 4:72(1983); Cole et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci USA, 80:2026 (1983)), and theEBV-hybridoma technique (Cole et al., “Monoclonal Antibodies and CancerTherapy,” Alan R. Liss, Inc., pp. 77-96 (1983). Such antibodies can beof any immunoglobulin class including IgG, IgM, IgE, IgA, IgD and anysubclass thereof. The hybridoma producing the monoclonal antibodies ofthe invention can be cultivated in vitro and in vivo.

Antibody fragments that have specific binding affinity for a SULT2A1allozyme can be generated by known techniques. For example, suchfragments include but are not limited to F(ab′)2 fragments that can beproduced by pepsin digestion of the antibody molecule, and Fab fragmentsthat can be generated by reducing the disulfide bridges of F(ab′)2fragments. Alternatively, Fab expression libraries can be constructed.See, for example, Huse et al., Science, 246:1275 (1989). Once produced,antibodies or fragments thereof are tested for recognition of SULT2A1allozymes by standard immunoassay methods including ELISA techniques,radioimmunoassays and Western blotting. See, Short Protocols inMolecular Biology, Chapter 11, Green Publishing Associates and JohnWiley & Sons, Edited by Ausubel, F. M et al., 1992.

Methods of the Invention

As a result of the present invention, it is now possible to determinesulfonator status of a mammal (e.g., a human subject) as well as todetermine if a mammal is predisposed to a disease (e.g., heart conditionor cancer) or to predict the course of a disease (e.g., progression ofHIV). “Sulfonator status” refers to the ability of a mammal to transfera sulfate group to a substrate (e.g., DHEA). Levels of DHEA have beenimplicated in a wide range of conditions, including cardiovasculardisease, HIV infection, tumor prevention, and aging. See, for example,Barrett-Connor et al., New Engl. J. Med. (1986) 315(24):1519-1524; de laTorre, Clin. Exp. Rheumatol. (1997) 15(1):87-90; and Barrou et al.,Presse Med. (1996) 25(38): 1885-9. Determining sulfonator status allowstailoring of particular treatments (e.g., hormone replacement therapy)to a particular patient. For example, determining sulfonator status of apatient can allow the dosage of a drug to be tailored such that thepatient receives an appropriate dose.

Predisposition refers to a relative greater risk for a heart conditionsuch as heart attack or stroke, or a cancer (e.g., testicular cancer oran estrogen-dependent cancer such as breast cancer). SULT2A1 catalyzessulfate conjugation of estrone and 17β-estradiol, which preventsformation of catecholestrogens such as 2-hydroxyestrone,2-hydroxyestradiol, 4-hydroxyestrone, and 4-hydroxyestradiol. SULT2A1also can catalyze sulfate conjugation of catecholestrogens, whichinactivates the catecholestrogens and diverts the compounds fromreceptor-mediated and genotoxic pathways of carcinogenesis. Adjei andWeinshilboum, Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 292:402-408 (2002).Additional risk factors for heart conditions and cancer, including, forexample, family history of heart disease or cancer and other geneticfactors, can be considered when determining risk.

Sulfonator status and predisposition to a heart condition or cancer canbe determined based on the presence or absence of a singlesulfotransferase sequence variant or based on a variant profile.“Variant profile” refers to the presence or absence of a plurality(i.e., two or more sequence variants) of SULT2A1 nucleotide sequencevariants or SULT2A1 amino acid sequence variants. For example, a variantprofile can include the complete SULT2A1 haplotype of the mammal or caninclude the presence or absence of a set of common SNPs (e.g., one ormore common non-synonymous SNPs that alter the amino acid sequence of aSULT2A1 polypeptide). In one embodiment, the variant profile includesdetecting the presence or absence of two or more non-synonymous SNPs(e.g., 2 or 3 non-synonymous SNPs) described above. There may beethnic-specific pharmacogenetic variation, as certain of the nucleotideand amino acid sequence variants described herein were detected solelyin African-American subjects. For example, a common haplotype in samplesfrom African-American subjects includes the three SNPs at −122, 187, and781 relative to the adenine of the SULT2A1 translation initiation codon.In addition, the variant profile can include detecting the presence orabsence of any type of SULT2A1 SNP together with any other SULT2A1 SNP(i.e., a polymorphism pair or groups of polymorphism pairs). Suchpolymorphism pairs include, without limitation, those pairs described inTable 4.

Articles of Manufacture

Articles of manufacture of the invention include populations of isolatedSULT2A1 nucleic acid molecules or SULT2A1 polypeptides immobilized on asubstrate. Suitable substrates provide a base for the immobilization ofthe nucleic acids or polypeptides, and in some embodiments, allowimmobilization of nucleic acids or polypeptides into discrete regions.In embodiments in which the substrate includes a plurality of discreteregions, different populations of isolated nucleic acids or polypeptidescan be immobilized in each discrete region. Thus, each discrete regionof the substrate can include a different SULT2A1 nucleotide or SULT2A1amino acid sequence variant. Such articles of manufacture can includetwo or more nucleotide or amino acid sequence variants, or can includeall of the sequence variants known for SULT2A1. Furthermore, nucleicacid molecules containing sequence variants for other sulfotransferases,such as SULT1A1, SULT1A2, SULT1A3, and SULT1A2, can be included on thesubstrate. See, WO 99/64630 and WO 00/20605 for a description of otherSULT1A1, SULT1A2, SULT1A3, and SULT1A2 sequence variants.

Suitable substrates can be of any shape or form and can be constructedfrom, for example, glass, silicon, metal, plastic, cellulose or acomposite. For example, a suitable substrate can include a multiwellplate or membrane, a glass slide, a chip, or polystyrene or magneticbeads. Nucleic acid molecules or polypeptides can be synthesized insitu, immobilized directly on the substrate, or immobilized via alinker, including by covalent, ionic, or physical linkage. Linkers forimmobilizing nucleic acids and polypeptides, including reversible orcleavable linkers, are known in the art. See, for example, U.S. Pat. No.5,451,683 and WO98/20019. Immobilized nucleic acid molecules aretypically about 20 nucleotides in length, but can vary from about 10nucleotides to about 1000 nucleotides in length.

In practice, a sample of DNA or RNA from a subject can be amplified, theamplification product hybridized to an article of manufacture containingpopulations of isolated nucleic acid molecules in discrete regions, andhybridization can be detected. Typically, the amplified product islabeled to facilitate detection of hybridization. See, for example,Hacia et al., Nature Genet., 14:441-447 (1996); and U.S. Pat. Nos.5,770,722 and 5,733,729.

The invention will be further described in the following examples, whichdo not limit the scope of the invention described in the claims.

EXAMPLES Example 1

Methods and Materials: PCR amplification and DNA sequencing:

Blood samples were obtained from 60 randomly selected African Americanblood donors and 60 randomly selected Caucasian blood donors at the MayoClinic Blood Bank in Rochester, Minn. Genomic DNA was extracted fromeach blood sample using QIAamp Blood Kits (Qiagen, Valencia, Calif. ).Once extracted, the genomic DNA was used as template in a PCR withSULT2A1-specific primers. The 6 exons in the SULT2A1 gene were amplifiedfrom each of the 120 DNA samples using primers that flanked the exonsand that would produce amplification products 400-500 bp in length.Amplification of the entire gene required seven separate reactions foreach DNA sample. The hybridization location of each primer was chosen toavoid repetitive sequence and to ensure amplification specificity. Allforward primers contained the M13 forward sequence, and all reverseprimers contained the M13 reverse sequence for use in dye primer DNAsequencing. The sequences and locations of each primer within the geneare listed in Table 1 (“F” represents forward; “R”, reverse; “U”,upstream; “D”, downstream; “I”, intron; “FR”, flanking region; and“UTR”, untranslated region).

Following amplification, the products from each reaction were sequencedusing dye primer DNA sequencing chemistry to identify heterozygousbases. DNA sequencing was performed in the Mayo Clinic Molecular BiologyCore Facility with an Applied Biosystems Model 377 DNA sequencers andBigDye{haeck over (O)} (Perkin Elmer, Foster City, Calif.) dye primersequencing chemistry. In all cases, both DNA strands were sequenced.

DNA sequence analysis: The seven separate SULT2A1 PCR amplificationsperformed for each of the 120 individual human genomic DNA samplesdescribed above generated a total of approximately 600,000 bp ofsequence. The DNA chromatograms for this sequence were analyzed bothvisually and using PolyPhred 3.0, Consed 8.0, and GCG 10.0 software. Allsequences were compared to the SULT2A1 gene sequences of GenBankaccession numbers U13056, U13057, U13058, U13059, U13060, and U13061.

COS-1 cell expression: Five different SULT2A1 expression constructs weremade using the pCR3.1 expression vector. Four of the constructs weredesigned to express SULT2A1 allozymes, while the remaining construct wasdesigned to express a wild type SULT2A1 polypeptide. All SULT2A1 cDNAsequences containing SULT2A1 nucleotide sequence variants used to createthe expression constructs were created by site directed mutagenesisusing the method described by Ho et al., Gene 77(1):51-9 (1989). EachSULT2A1 cDNA was amplified by PCR and subcloned into the eukaryoticexpression vector pCR3.1 (Promega, Madison, Wis.). After subcloning, allinserts were sequenced to assure that no spurious nucleotide pointmutations had been introduced during the PCR amplifications. COS-1 cellswere transfected with these expression constructs by the TransFast{haeckover (O)} reagent (Promega, Madison, Wis.) as suggested by themanufacturer (i.e., using a 1:1 charge ratio). As a control, atransfection was also performed with “empty” pCR3.1, i.e., vectorlacking an insert, to make it possible to correct for endogenous COS-1cell SULT activity. The control plasmid pSV-β-galactosidase (Promega)was cotransfected with each SULT2A1 construct to make it possible tocorrect for transfection efficiency. Two independent transfections, eachconsisting of three separate plates, were performed with each of theexpression constructs.

After 48 hours in culture, the transfected cells were harvested and highspeed supernatant (HSS) cytosol preparations were prepared as describedby Wood, T. C. et al., Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 198:1119-1127(1994). Aliquots of these cytosol preparations were stored at −80° C.prior to assay.

Enzyme Assays: β-galactosidase activity in each of the COS-1 HSSpreparations was measured with the β-galactosidase Enzyme Assay System(Promega, Madison, Wis.). These HSS preparations of recombinant SULT2A1allozymes were used for the activity studies without any furtherpurification. The protein concentration of each recombinant proteinpreparation was determined by the dye-binding method of Bradford withbovine serum albumin (BSA) as a standard.

SULT2A1 enzyme activity was measured with an assay that involves sulfateconjugation of a sulfate acceptor substrate, DHEA, in the presence ofthe sulfate donor 3′-phosphoadenosine-5′-phosphosulfate (PAPS). See,Campbell, N. R. C. et al., Biochem. Pharmacol., 36:1435-1446 (1987).Briefly, 0.4 μM ³⁵S-PAPS and a HSS preparation were reacted with 5 μMDHEA in 5 mM potassium phosphate buffer at pH 6.5. Blanks were samplesthat did not contain DHEA. Cytosol from COS-1 cells that had beentransfected with empty pCR3.1 was used to correct for endogenous SULTactivity. Because SULTs display profound substrate inhibition, DHEAconcentrations that ranged from 100 pM to 1 mM were tested with eachrecombinant allozyme to ensure that the assays were performed at DHEAconcentrations that yielded maximal activity for that allozyme. Enzymeactivity was expressed as nanomoles (nmoles) of sulfate conjugatedproduct formed per hour of incubation. Apparent K_(m) values for PAPSwere determined in the presence of 5 μM DHEA with six PAPSconcentrations that varied from 0.0625 μM to 2 μM.

Western blot analysis: Levels of immunoreactive SULT2A1 were determinedfor each recombinant allozyme by performing quantitative Western blotanalysis. Rabbit polyclonal antibody directed against SULT2A1 aminoacids 268-285, with an additional amino terminus cysteine (described inWood et al., J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol. 59:467-478 (1996)) at adilution of 1:2000 was used in these studies. Specifically, recombinantprotein was loaded on a 12% SDS mini-gel (BioRad, Hercules, Calif. ) inquantities that resulted in equal β-galactosidase activity, i.e., gelloading was corrected for variation in transfection efficiency.Electrophoresis was performed for 1 h at 150 volts, and proteins weretransferred to nitrocellulose membranes. The membranes were blockedovernight at 4° C. with 5% dried milk in Tris buffered saline withTween-20 (TBST). Subsequently, the membranes were incubated with primaryantibody for 1 h, followed by three TBST washes. The secondary antibody,a 1:10,000 dilution of goat anti-rabbit horseradish peroxidase (BioRad),was applied for 1 h in 5% milk in TBST, followed by multiple washes.Bound antibody was detected with the ECL Western Blotting System(Amersham Pharmacia, Piscataway, N.J.). Multiple blots were assayed foreach allozyme, and immunoreactive protein levels were expressed as apercentage of the intensity of the control wild type SULT2A1 proteinband on the same gel. The AMBIS Radioanalytical Imaging System, QuantProbe v. 4.31 (AMBIS, San Diego, Calif. ) was used to analyze each blot.

Gel Filtration Chromatography: Gel filtration chromatography ofrecombinant human SULT2A1 was performed at 4° C. with a 2×25 cm columnof Sephadex G-100 superfine. The mobile phase was 5 mM K phosphatebuffer, pH 7.5, and 3 ml fractions were collected at a flow rate ofapproximately 1.8 mL per h. The fractions were assayed for SULT2A1activity. Standards for column calibration were eluted separately andincluded Dextran Blue 2000, bovine serum albumin (67 kDa), ovalbumin (45kDa), chymotrypsinogen A (20 kDa) and ribonuclease A (13.7 kDa).

Data Analysis: Average levels of enzyme activity were compared by ANOVA,using the StatView program, version 4.5 (Abacus Concepts, Inc.,Berkeley, Calif. ). Apparent K_(m) values were calculated by using themethod of Wilkinson with a computer program written by Cleland.Wilkinson, G. N., Biochem. J., 80:324-332 (1961); and Cleland, W. W.,Nature, 198:463-365 (1963). Apparent Km values were compared by the useof unpaired Student's t-test. Linkage analysis involved testing allpossible pairwise combinations of SNPs by calculating D′ values usingthe methods of Hartl and Clark, Principles of Population Genetics 3^(rd)edn. Sinauer Associates: Sunderland, Mass., 1997, pp. 95-107; andHedrick, Genetics of Populations 3^(rd) edn. Jones and Bartlett Publ:Sudbury, Mass., 2000, pp. 396-405. TABLE 1 PCR primers used forresequencing SULT2A1 Primer Name Primer Location Primer Sequence GeneSpecific Primer-3′ SEQ ID NO: F(−370)M13 5′-FRTGTAAAACGACGGCCAGTGCTTTGTTCTTGTTTTTAAGTTTGCAC 4 R(−44)M13CAGGAAACAGCTATGACCCACCGCTGGAGGCTGTGGCAGCTACAG 5 F(−118)M13 Exon 1TGTAAAACGACGGCCAGTGGGACAAGGTTAAAGATCGTTTTATC 6 I1R103M13CAGGAAACAGCTATGACCAAGCATTGTACACTGTCTGAC 7 I1F(−50)M13 Exon 2TGTAAAACGACGGCCAGTATGTCCGGCTGAGATGGTACA 8 I2R112M13CAGGAAACAGCTATGACCAACACAGACCTGTTGAAGGAG 9 I2F(−112)M13 Exon 3TGTAAAACGACGGCCAGTATTGATATTATTAGGCATTATCCA 10 I3R129M13CAGGAAACAGCTATGACCAGGTTTGGCCTCCAGGGGTGG 11 I3F(−176)M13 Exon 4TGTAAAACGACGGCCAGTACATCTGTTATATACTGTAAA 12 I4R94M13CAGGAAACAGCTATGACCGGTGGAATGAAGACACAG 13 I4F(−76)M13 Exon 5TGTAAAACGACGGCCAGTGGGATTACACGGTGAACCACC 14 I5R98M13CAGGAAACAGCTATGACCAAGCTCTCTTTCATCTCAACT 15 I5F(−95)M13 Exon 6TGTAAAACGACGGCCAGTCTGCTATGTTAGCTACAATGTCCA 16 R361M13CAGGAAACAGCTATGACCTTTTAACAAGGAAGGGATCAG 17Underlinednucleotides indicate M13 tag

Example 2

SULT2A1 Polymorphisms: Sequencing of the 5′ and 3′ untranslatedsequences, exons, and introns of the SULT2A1 nucleic acid revealed 15SNPs (Table 2). Polymorphisms in exons, untranslated regions (UTR), andflanking regions (FR) are numbered relative to the adenine in theSULT2A1 translation initiation codon (ATG, adenine is +1). Polymorphismsin introns are numbered separately, either as positive numbers relativeto the guanine in the splice donor site (GT, guanine is +1), or asnegative numbers relative to the guanine in the splice acceptor site(AG, guanine is −1). Three of the 15 SNPs altered the encoded amino acid(i.e., a non-synonymous SNP), resulting in three different SULT2A1allozymes. Two of the three variants appeared to be “common”(frequency>1%, Table 2) among the 60 African American samples. The samethree variants were not detected among the 60 Caucasian samples.

The average number of polymorphisms present in the gene overall, withinthe ORF, and outside the ORF was 5.6, 8.7, and 5.0 per kb sequenced,respectively, in the African American samples (Table 3). The averagenumber of polymorphisms present in the gene overall and within the ORFwas 2.4, 0, and 3.8 per kb sequenced, respectively, in the Caucasiansamples (Table 3). For purposes of comparison, Table 3 also includesdata from a large study of polymorphism frequencies in 74 human genes(Halushka et al., Nat. Genet. (1999) 22(3):239-247). Because Halushka etal. studied a slightly smaller number of samples (74 versus the 120described), low frequency polymorphisms that would not have beendetected by Halushka et al. have been eliminated because of their lowersample number. The genetic variation present within the SULT2A1 sequencewas very similar to average values observed in the 74 genes sequenced byHalushka et al. The data in Table 3 are also presented by gene region,with “UTR” representing both exons encoding cDNA untranslated regionsand 5′- and 3′-flanking regions. TABLE 2 Human SULT2A1 sequence variantsFrequency of Nucleotide Altered Variant Wild Type Variant Amino African-Position Location Allele Allele Acid American Caucasian −122  5′-FR G A0.042 0.000  6 Exon 1 G A 0.017 0.000  90 Exon 1 C T 0.067 0.000  I1(16) Intron 1 C T 0.033 0.167 187 Exon 2 G C Ala63Pro 0.050 0.000258 Exon 2 A C 0.008 0.000   I2(34) Intron 2 G A 0.100 0.017   I3(57)Intron 3 C T 0.008 0.000      I3(−129)  Intron 3 G A 0.050 0.083    I3(−94) Intron 3 C G 0.092 0.283   I4(67) Intron 4 C T 0.008 0.033679 Exon 5 A G Lys227Glu 0.008 0.000 781 Exon 6 G A Ala261Thr 0.1330.000 924 Exon 6 T C 0.000 0.017 935 Exon 6 A T 0.058 0.000

TABLE 3 SULT2A1 polymorphism frequencies Polymorphisms per kb SULT2A1African American Caucasian 74 Human Genes Gene(s) 1 1 74 Samples 60 6075 Min. Allele Freq. 0.80% 0.80% 0.68% Overall 5.6 2.4 4.6 Coding 8.70.0 4.4 Noncoding 5.0 3.8 5.9 UTRs 7.4 3.7 4.4 Introns 6.0 5.0 6.0

Example 3

Linkage Disequilibrium Analysis:

Linkage disequilibrium analysis was performed after all of the DNAsamples had been genotyped at each of the 15 polymorphic sites. Pairwisecombinations of these polymorphisms were tested for linkagedisequilibrium using the EH program developed by Terwilliger and Ott,Handbook of Human Genetic Linkage. The Johns Hopkins University Press,Baltimore, pp. 188-193 (1994). The output of this program was used tocalculate d′ values, a method for reporting linkage data that isindependent of sample size. D′ values can range from +1.0 when twopolymorphisms are maximally positively associated, to −1.0 when twopolymorphisms never occur together. All pairwise combinations with alinkage disequilibrium greater than or equal to 1% are shown in Table 4.Seven pairs of SNPs had statistically significant Chi-square values(>3.84) for D′, and the three polymorphisms at nucleotides −122, 187,and 781 had absolute D′ values which were greater than 0.3. In all threeof those cases, D′ was 1.0—i.e., all three of these SNPs were highlylinked, even though one was located in the 5′ flanking region, one wasin exon 2, and the final SNP was in exon 6. That is, the polymorphismswere spread over a total length of approximately 14.7 kB. It should benoted that the SNPs at nucleotides 187 and 781 were non-synonynous, withfrequencies in DNA samples from African American subjects of 0.05 and0.137, respectively. Thus, a common haplotype in samples from AfricanAmerican DNA subjects includes all three of these SNPs. TABLE 4 SULT2A1linkage disequilibrium analysis Polymorphism Pair d′ Value χ² Value  781935 +1.000 31.65  187 781 +1.000 26.63 −122 187 +1.000 36.27 −122 781+1.000 21.80  90 I2(34) +0.300 3.96  90 I3(−94) −0.225 3.39 I2(34)I3(−94) −0.231 6.01 I3(−94) 781 −0.230 4.13 −122  90 −0.034 0.34 −122I1(16) −0.111 1.07 −122 I2(34) −0.062 0.61 −122 I3(−129) −0.071 0.70−122 I3(−94) −0.225 0.71 −122 I4(67) −0.021 0.21 −122 935 −0.030 0.30 90 I1(16) −0.093 0.34  90 187 −0.034 0.41  90 I3(−129) −0.009 0.01  90I4(67) −0.034 0.34  90 781 −0.071 1.12  90 935 −0.034 0.48 I1(16) 187−0.111 1.28 I1(16) I2(34) −0.111 1.65 I1(16) I3(−129) −0.111 3.50 I1(16)I3(−94) −0.167 0.99 I1(16) I4(67) −0.111 1.07 I1(16) 781 −0.111 3.50I1(16) 935 −0.111 1.50  187 I2(34) −0.062 0.73  187 I3(−129) −0.071 0.84 187 I3(−94) −0.229 1.13  187 I4(67) −0.026 0.26  187 935 −0.030 0.36I2(34) I3(−129) −0.071 1.99 I2(34) I4(67) +0.096 0.30 I2(34) 781 −0.0711.99 I2(34) 935 −0.062 0.085 I3(−129) I3(−94) −0.218 1.35 I3(−129)I4(67) −0.071 0.70 I3(−129) 781 −0.070 0.89 I3(−129) 935 −0.071 0.98I3(−94) I4(67) −0.231 2.10 I3(−94) 935 −0.229 1.56 I4(67) 781 −0.0710.70 I4(67) 935 −0.030 0.30

Example 4

Activity of SULT2A1 Allozymes:

Catalytic activity of cytosol preparations of recombinant SULT2A1allozymes, prepared as described in Example 1, were used to assesscatalytic activity in the presence of 5 μM DHEA. The resultingactivities were adjusted to a percentage of the WT SULT2A1 enzymeactivity.

In addition, the apparent K_(m) values for each enzyme were determinedusing PAPS. Because SULTs, including SULT2A1, can show profoundsubstrate inhibition, experiments involving the sulfate acceptorcosubstrate were conducted in two stages. Initially, a wide range ofconcentrations was tested followed by a determination of K_(m) valueswithin a narrower range of concentrations. Although there werestatistically significant variations among the allozymes in apparentK_(m) values for both DHEA and PAPS, those variations were not largequantitatively, and in the case of PAPS the apparent K_(m) values forthree of the variant allozymes were significantly lower than that of theWT enzyme (Table 5). As a result, decreases in the level of enzymeactivity observed for three of the four variant allozymes could not beattributed entirely to alterations in substrate affinity.

Quantitative Western blot analysis showed that levels of immunoreactiveSULT2A1, corrected for transfection efficiency, paralleled relativelevels of enzyme activity among the variant allozymes (Table 5). Westernblot analysis data were obtained by assaying cytosol for each allozymefrom three independent transfections performed on different days toensure that results were reproducible. The data listed in Table 5 areaverages of those three transfections. Table 5 also lists the ratio ofenzymatic activity to immunoreactive protein for each allozyme. Itshould be noted that none of the alterations in encoded amino acid forthe variant allozymes studied were located within the sequence of thepeptide used to generate the rabbit polyclonal antibody utilized toperform the Western blots. These studies showed that alterations in theamino acid sequence of SULT2A1 as a result of genetic polymorphismssignificantly altered levels of enzyme protein. TABLE 5 Human SULT2A1functional genomic studies Enzyme Enzyme Immunoreactive activity:Activity protein immunoreactive DHEA K_(m) PAPS K_(m) Construct (%) (%)protein (μM) (nM) WT 100 100 1.0 0.247 ± 0.071 21.8 ± 0.86  Ala63Pro 57± 7* 27 ± 9* 2.1 0.210 ± 0.010  8.2 ± 1.32* Lys227Glu 15 ± 3*  2 ± 1*7.5  0.905 ± 0.053* 10.2 ± 0.96* Ala261Thr 93 ± 6  79 ± 7  1.2 0.245 ±0.012 22.7 ± 0.62  63Pro/261Thr 42 ± 2*  26 ± 14* 1.6 0.290 ± 0.012 11.4± 0.30**Values differ significantly from WT enzyme (P < 0.05)

Three of the four recombinant SULT2A1 allozymes had significantlydecreased enzyme activity, after correction for transfection efficiency,as compared to that of the WT sequence Table 5). Recombinant enzymecontaining the Ala63Pro change, a polymorphism with a frequency of 0.05in African-American subjects, resulted in only 57% of the averageactivity present compared to wild-type enzyme. When the Ala63Propolymorphism was combined with Ala261Thr, thus creating the doublevariant that occurred commonly in the African-American subjects studied,enzyme activity was decreased to 42% of the wild-type level (Table 5).However, activity of the Ala261Thr variant alone, an allozyme encoded byapproximately 8% of all alleles in African-American subjects, (85%reduction, or 15% of WT activity; Table 5), resulted in the largestdecrease in activity.

Example 5

SULT2A1 Crystal Structure and Dimerization:

The x-ray crystal structure of SULT2A1 has been solved at a resolutionof 2.3 Å, enabling the locations of polymorphic SULT2A1 amino acidswithin that structure to be determined. The polymorphism that resultedin the Ala63Pro change in amino acid was located 14 residues downstreamfrom the conserved ‘Region I’ sequence motif that is present in allknown human SULTs and which is thought to be involved in PAPS binding.That change in amino acid resulted in a 43% decrease in enzyme activityas well as a decrease in immunoreactive protein (Table 5). This aminoacid was located on the ‘surface’ of the protein. Lys227Glu was locatedfour amino acids upstream of the putative SULT2A1 substrate-bindingsite. Like Ala63Pro, this residue was also on the surface of theprotein. This latter alteration in sequence resulted in a strikingdecrease in enzyme activity (to 15% of the activity of the wild-typesequence) as well as a very low level of immunoreactive protein (Table5).

The Ala261Thr polymorphism is located within the dimerization motif atthe C-terminus of the conserved ‘Region IV’ SULT signature sequence, andmay alter the formation of the SULT2A1 homodimer. To test thathypothesis, recombinant WT and codon Thr261 variant allozymepreparations were subjected to gel filtration chromatography throughSephadex G-100. Those experiments showed that the major peak for WTenzyme was compatible with the presence of SULT2A1 dimer, while that forthe variant allozyme was compatible with monomer. As a result, thisappears to be the first demonstration of a common SULT geneticpolymorphism that disrupts dimerization.

OTHER EMBODIMENTS

It is to be understood that while the invention has been described inconjunction with the detailed description thereof, the foregoingdescription is intended to illustrate and not limit the scope of theinvention, which is defined by the scope of the appended claims. Otheraspects, advantages, and modifications are within the scope of thefollowing claims.

1-25. (canceled)
 26. A method for determining if a mammal is predisposedto a heart condition or cancer, wherein said method comprises: a)obtaining a biological sample from said mammal, and b) detecting thepresence or absence of a SULT2A1 nucleotide sequence variant in saidsample, wherein predisposition to said heart condition or cancer isdetermined based on the presence or absence of said variant.
 27. Themethod of claim 26, wherein said method further comprises detecting thepresence or absence of a plurality of said SULT2A1 nucleotide sequencevariants in said sample to obtain a variant profile of said mammal, andwherein predisposition to said heart condition or cancer is determinedbased on said variant profile.
 28. The method of claim 26, wherein saidheart condition is heart attack or stroke.
 29. The method of claim 26,wherein said cancer is testicular cancer.
 30. A method for assisting amedical or research professional, wherein said method comprises: a)obtaining a biological sample from a mammal, and b) detecting thepresence or absence of a plurality of SULT2A1 nucleotide sequencevariants in said sample to obtain a variant profile of said mammal. 31.The method of claim 30, wherein said method further comprisescommunicating said profile to said medical or research professional. 32.(canceled)
 33. A method for determining the sulfonator status of ansubject, said method comprising determining whether said subjectcomprises a variant SULT2A1 nucleic acid.
 34. The method of claim 33,wherein said variant SULT2A1 nucleic acid comprises a nucleotidesequence variant at a position selected from the group consisting ofnucleotide 1718 of SEQ ID NO:18, nucleotide 207 of SEQ ID NO:2,nucleotide 699 of SEQ ID NO:2, and nucleotide 801 of SEQ ID NO:2. 35.The method of claim 33, wherein said variant SULT2A1 nucleic acidcomprises an adenine at position 1718 of SEQ ID NO.18.
 36. The method ofclaim 33, wherein said variant SULT2A1 nucleic acid comprises a cytosineat position 207 of SEQ ID NO:2.
 37. The method of claim 33, wherein saidvariant SULT2A1 nucleic acid comprises a guanine at position 699 of SEQID NO:2.
 38. The method of claim 33, wherein said variant SULT2A1nucleic acid comprises an adenine at position 801 of SEQ ID NO:2. 39.The method of claim 33, wherein said variant SULT2A1 nucleic acidcomprises a nucleotide sequence variant at a position selected from thegroup consisting of nucleotide 1845 of SEQ ID NO:18, nucleotide 1929 ofSEQ ID NO:18, nucleotide 1991 of SEQ ID NO:18, nucleotide 173 of SEQ IDNO:19, nucleotide 294 of SEQ ID NO:19, nucleotide 397 of SEQ ID NO:20,nucleotide 47 of SEQ ID NO:21, nucleotide 83 of SEQ ID NO:21, nucleotide337 of SEQ ID NO:21, nucleotide 274 of SEQ ID NO:1, and nucleotide 285of SEQ ID NO:1.
 40. The method of claim 39, wherein said variant SULT2A1nucleic acid comprises an adenine at position 1856 of SE ID NO:18, athymine at position 1929 of SEQ ID NO:18, a thymine at position 1991 ofSEQ ID NO:18, a cytosine at position 173 of SEQ ID NO:19, an adenine atposition 294 of SEQ ID NO:19, a thymine at position 397 of SEQ ID NO:20,an adenine at position 47 of SEQ ID NO:21, a guanine at position 83 ofSEQ ID NO:21, a thymine at position 337 of SEQ ID NO:21, a cytosine atposition 274 of SEQ ID NO:1, or a thymine at position 285 of SEQ IDNO:1.
 41. The method of claim 33, wherein said determining comprises:wherein said method comprises: a) obtaining a biological sample fromsaid subject, and b) detecting the presence or absence of a SULT2A1nucleotide sequence variant in said sample.